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JAPAN SOCIETY LECTURE
JAPAN AND THE ILLUSTRATED LONDON NEWS: 1851 - 1905 16th September 2003 The Birth of the Illustrated London News In any study of 19th Century Anglo/Japanese relations, it would be difficult for any serious scholar to ignore the Illustrated London News (ILN) as a resource. It was, and is, a remarkable periodical - no less than the publishing success story of the Victorian era. Its reporting was, of course, conditioned by the social and political environment in which it found itself; the Empire was at its height and the British way of seeing the world was certainly different then, to what it is now. Britain's 'place' in the world was quite clear, and other countries and peoples were judged against its own social, religious and moral standards. And so certain then were we of our beliefs and principles, that we had no hesitation in imposing them on others, often with the assistance of formidable and visible military capability. Given that background, it is important to appreciate that the ILN was relatively liberal in its views, sympathetic to the plight of the working class poor and far more balanced in its coverage and representation of foreign conflicts and, by extension, other races. This is helpful to us in trying to understand how the British saw Japan and the Japanese in the period leading up to the Perry Expedition of 1852-54 and right through to the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-05. First published on 14th May 1842, the world's first illustrated magazine provided the British public with a colourful pictorial analysis of domestic and world affairs. Its popularity was immediate; the first week's edition sold 26,000 copies, rising to 60,000 by the end of the year. By 1848, boosted by coverage of the French Revolution, circulation reached 80,000. The 1851 Great Exhibition saw the number reach 130,000, only to be surpassed by the funeral of the Duke of Wellington when 150,000 copies were sold. By 1855, the weekly circulation reached 200,000. A peak of 310,000 was reached in 1863 with the issue covering the marriage of the Prince of Wales. It is worth trying to put these circulation figures into some kind of perspective. For example, in 1863 popular newspapers such as the Daily News sold only 6,000 copies. The most popular daily, The Times, sold 70,000. We can also consider today's quality Sunday newspapers: the Independent on Sunday sells approximately 210,000, whilst the most popular, the Sunday Times, has a circulation of 1.3 millions. Given that the last 140 years has seen a steep rise in prosperity and general literacy levels, not to mention a population increase from 20 to 60 millions, the circulation numbers for the ILN were quite remarkable. The founder of the ILN was a certain Herbert Ingram (1811 - 1860), a bookseller and printer from Nottingham. He had observed that sales of the Weekly Chronicle increased sharply, on the rare occasions that they contained woodcut illustrations. He also believed that 'visual appeal is the essence of drama'. The enterprise would have required a significant amount of capital to secure the necessary printing supplies, equipment and artists and engravers; and these artists would have had to work at break-neck speed in order to meet the weekly publishing deadlines. Foreign correspondents, who would preferably be artists, had to be recruited and paid. The most famous of these, from our point of view, was Charles Wirgman who, in 1857 was sent to China to cover the conflict there which lasted until 1860. After this he was sent to Japan and arrived in 1861 where he stayed until his death in 1891. I will say more about Wirgman later. The ILN stayed in the Ingram family until the 1960s, when the publication passed to the Thompson organisation, who own it to this day. The magazine is still being published - but only twice a year. The evolution of the printing technology employed by the ILN is beyond the scope of this talk. Suffice to say that, initially, simple woodcut illustrations were used, and these were superseded in the 1880s by the half-tone process which was a way of reproducing photographs directly onto paper. This made for a dramatic improvement in the quality of the illustrations. The ILN was not without competition: L'Illustration was the French response in 1843, Leslie's Illustrated Paper commenced in 1855 in America, and Britain also saw the birth of the Penny Illustrated Paper (1861), The Graphic (1869) and the Pictorial World (1874). For a time, The Graphic was a serious competitor, but this publication fizzled out in the early 20th century. I have selected some sample articles that are not without historical significance. The opening of Japan, and the following fifteen years, was a time of unrest and violence - much of it directed against the Western newcomers resident at the Treaty ports. The early articles reflect this. First Article on Japan The first Japan-related article to appear in the ILN, concerns Commodore Perry's United States fleet of warships and his mission to open the country. It is contained in the May 7th 1853 issue and consists of an imposing portrait of the Commodore himself, together with an engraving of his flagship - the Mississippi. The article begins with the portentous words:'The presence of a large and powerful American fleet in the Eastern Seas possesses an unexpected interest at the present moment…….' The ILN is in no doubt about the military capability of the fleet, should the need arise to involve itself in hostilities, nor in Perry's resolve to do so, should events so determine. It acknowledges contemporary reporting which suggests that the expedition has not sailed with hostile intentions, and that it is not contemplating the use of any force. But it then goes on to relate that '…causes of quarrel are not wanting. The Japanese have barbarously seized American sailors, who have been shipwrecked upon their coast, and have confined them in cages. Commodore Perry will call the Government of Japan to account for these outrages.' It adds that '……it is necessary to ask her attention to the business in a way she will not be likely to refuse'. The ILN gives an account of the vessels under Perry's control and their 260 guns and 4,000 officers, seamen and marines: '…a more efficient and powerful fleet never sailed from the American coast.' Finally, it points out that the surveying squadron of five ships under the command of Commodore Ringgold is also in the area and '…..will be within the call of Commodore Perry in the event of hostilities with the Japanese.' It is not until five months later, in the 22nd October issue that we hear from a Hong-Kong based correspondent that Perry's fleet had arrived in August after its first visit to Japan. The correspondent relates that the US forces disembarked at Uraga to deliver the President's letter: '……Perry landed a force of 300 or 400 men, and presented the letter of the President of the United States, and his own credentials, to a Prince of a province, the member of the Emperor's cabinet appointed to receive them. The above force was met on shore by four or five thousand Japanese troops, drawn up on a crescent beach. Both parties were ready for an encounter at a moment's warning; for the Japanese had apprehensions of treachery, as well as the Americans, and had guarded against it……………………Jeddo bay is represented as being the most beautiful and extensive in the world, with scenery in the vicinity unsurpassed for magnificence………..as to the Japanese - their manners, customs, their dress - all appear to remain precisely the same as described two centuries ago. Most of the troops met were armed with spears, and bows and arrows. There were thirty flint-lock muskets, and two or three hundred old-fashioned fire-locks amongst them………….a few women were seen accidentally……they appeared delicate and modest.' Admiral Stirling's tact and diplomacy In marked contrast to Perry's uncompromising approach to negotiations, Admiral Sir James Stirling, who was sent by England to negotiate terms at least as favourable as those secured by the Commodore, adopted a far more measured and restrained approach. This is understood from the text of an extensive 13th January 1855 ILN correspondent's article; but it is also understood from the same article, that Stirling had no intention of going home empty-handed: "On the 7th September (1854), H.M. Ships the 'Winchester', the steamers 'Encounter', 'Barracouta' and 'Styx', anchored in the outer harbour of Nagasaki……….the Captain of the Port, the Governor's Aide-de-Camp, and an inspector of Customs came on board the flag-ship, attended by seventeen persons, each carrying two swords………the officers were shown into the Captain's cabin, where a conversation was begun through the medium of a Japanese named Oto, whom the Admiral had brought with him from Shanghae (sic). This man had been wrecked in a trading junk more than twenty years ago. After many vicissitudes of life, including a visit to England,….he was now a storekeeper …at Shanghae, worth a large sum of money. The Japanese wanted to take him on shore, but he said he had a wife and children at Shanghae, and preferred remaining under the protection of the English flag. One of the Japanese said, 'a sorrowful wife and weeping children'…….They took a letter from the Admiral to the Emperor offering compliments, and asking for a place to land his men upon for exercise. They said they would forward it to the Emperor at Yeddo; that an answer might be expected in forty days…..meantime ..the Governor could not receive the Admiral's visit nor visit him…..the English..were not to be suffered to land anywhere, and were surrounded with ten guard-boats…..For three weeks the four ships lay in this very unpleasant state, nor were such humiliating restrictions ever more patiently, nay courteously, submitted to………The Admiral expressed a wish to buy provisions for the squadron; but the Japanese said, their laws absolutely forbade any trade whatever. They would, however, supply water, and such provisions and vegetables as were required…….The Japanese had taken care to ascertain the number of persons on board the four ships…the amount was a round thousand. Significant detail is given on how the men passed the time whilst waiting for the orders from Yeddo (Tokyo). Then, on the 28th September, Admiral Stirling decided to increase the pressure on the local Nagasaki authorities. The correspondent went on: "On the 28th the squadron had been exactly three weeks in durance vile, when the Admiral sent for the Japanese authorities, and communicated to them by a letter to the Governor his intention to proceed at once to Yeddo. The letter read: 'He (Stirling) had complied with all formalities, tried every means, in vain. He conceived he had been subjected to such treatment as a nation of England's great power never had been used to; and he saw no alternative but to go to the principal seat of government.' The Japanese resolve was breaking: "The Japanese urged that the Governor had done all which his laws empowered him to do, and would have sent more liberal supplies had they been desired; that a reply from Yeddo would be sure to arrive in ten days; that if the Admiral were to go there now, he would lose time in going through all the formalities again. They were surprised the Admiral should be in such haste to leave a port where he was well treated, etc. They were asked , 'how it was possible to feel surprised that men who had been cooped up in ships in port for twenty-one days, without ever being allowed to put foot on shore, could feel otherwise than disgusted and anxious to depart?' They (the Japanese) would ask the Governor. They were told that the Admiral would delay his departure for a few hours, if that would enable the Governor to solve the difficulties. Later that night, the concessions began. The English were assigned a small area on shore where they could exercise, the Admiral met the Governor on shore, a positive response from Yeddo appeared and the Treaty was completed without any real further difficulties. Six weeks after arrival, Stirling had accomplished his mission and sailed away on the 20th October 1854. The article must run to more than 4,000 words and contains an immense amount of detail - much of it of considerable importance to researchers, historians and anyone at all interested in the opening of Japan. In fact the font size in many of the ILN's articles means that reading glasses are often a poor substitute for a magnifying glass. But the length of the article is not un-typical. There was time for detail in the mid-19th Century, and detail mattered. Lord Elgin's 1858 Embassy to Japan Moving forward a few years to 1858, we join Lord Elgin who, during what turned out to be only a temporary cessation of hostilities in China, has sailed to Japan to negotiate a commercial treaty on behalf of the English Government. Sailing straight into Tokyo Bay, he met less resistance than would have been expected (due, at least partially, to intelligence reaching the Japanese about Elgin's apparent victory over the Chinese) and, indeed, the Treaty was completed in just a few short weeks, paving the way for the opening of the treaty ports of Kanagawa (Yokohama), Nagasaki and Hakodate on the 1st July 1859. November 1858 issues include a number of interesting engravings, together with extensive coverage of the visit. The ILN's correspondent's concluding paragraph from the relevant article in the November 27th issue is somewhat prophetic: "The Japanese are a licentious people, but without the overweening conceit of the Chinese. They are quick to resent an injury, but equally willing to retrieve one to the best of their power. Loyal and courageous, they will stand by their laws and defend their superiors; but sensible enough to learn from those who know better than themselves whether it be the arts of peace or the practice of war. We may without fear predict that, after the ordeal of the first period of intercourse with Western nations, the people of Japan will advance rapidly in the scale of nations, and probably favoured by their insular position and peculiar characteristics - become the leaders of Eastern civilisation". Rutherford Alcock's first audience with the Shogun Numerous articles cover events in Japan at that time. Of interest is Minister Alcock's reception by the Shogun, reported in the 15th December 1860 issue. The correspondent confirms the meeting as having taken place on the 25th August 1859 at Yedo, and gleefully compares the civility with which the delegation was received, with that afforded to the Dutch over the previous 250 years: "…….the day has arrived when a British Minister can take up his residence in Jeddo, and is received by the Tycoon, not as were the Dutch chiefs of the Dutch factory (at Deshima, Nagasaki) crawling on their hands and knees with their heads to the ground between the rows of their tribute goods………………and…the bold captain was required, crab-like, to crawl his way out again….." Charles Wirgman's first despatch Charles Wirgman, the artist and ILN correspondent sent to China, arrived in Nagasaki on the 25th April 1861. He lived in Japan for the next 30 years and was buried in the foreigners' cemetery at Yokohama in 1891. For the first 20 years of his residence, he was the ILN's chief correspondent and 'special' artist and sent numerous sketches and articles back to London - many of which were published. His first words about Japan appear in the 10th August 1861 issue: "After the recent events in Japan a few sketches from this country may prove interesting to your readers. I shall therefore wander about in search of the picturesque and forward to you the most characteristic ones by every opportunity." Wirgman was enchanted by Japan and its people, and his sympathetic observations were no doubt a major reason for the popularity of Japan as a destination point for many British travellers and merchants. A talented, if not great artist Wirgman was able to complement his musings with attractive sketches and water-colours. He also produced his own satirical illustrated magazine, called Japan Punch, which was popular with the local expatriate community; he published it, intermittently, throughout the 1860s/70s and 80s. Light-hearted and amusing, he was considered to be very good company and he many friends in the foreign mercantile community, as well as the diplomatic corp. Friendship with this latter group could have cost him his life, since he was a guest at the British Legation, at Yedo, when it was attacked by Japanese assassins on the night of the 5th July 1861. Assassination attempt at the British Consulate The assassins' target was the British Minister himself, Rutherford Alcock. The tone of Wirgman's subsequent report is deadly serious, and a far cry from his future trademark whimsical style. Having arrived a little over two months previously, it would have been a stark warning of the violent under-currents running in the country. He writes from Yokohama: "I thought to have been enabled to send you by this mail some interesting sketches from the interior of Japan, having come to this place overland from Nagasaki, but serious events have occurred at Jeddo, and I therefore hasten to send you a slight account of what took place. We had only been in Jeddo two days, fatigued with our month's trip, when, having retired to rest about half-past ten p.m, we were awoke by loud and repeated knockings at the front door………..presently two pistol shots were heard, and Messrs. Oliphant and Morrison appeared deluged with blood. The assassins were in the house, and, with the exception of Mr. Morrison, no one of us had fire arms ready………there was an uproar, accompanied by smashing of glass and breaking of wood. The assassins were in the next apartment, we being in Mr. Alcock's room. By this time our guns were loaded………." By this time, Morrison had shot dead one of the marauders, but he and Oliphant (who would never completely recover) had been wounded, both narrowly escaping death from the flashing razor-sharp swords. The Japanese guard had by now fully engaged with the attackers and a number were slain. Alcock and the others were unhurt. The 1860s was a period when a number of very unpleasant incidents took place, with elements of Japanese society finding it very difficult to live with the notion of foreigners making their homes on Japanese soil. A number of assassinations occurred and the Western powers, by way of retribution, countered by sending warships to bombard the towns of Kagoshima and Shimonoseki. Traumatic as all this was, it was really only the sub-plot to the real drama taking place, which was no less than the overthrow of the Tokugawa regime and the restoration of Imperial Power. Foreigners resident at the Treaty ports were often used as pawns in the wider political game being played. The game's protagonists being those, on the one hand, who wished to maintain the status quo - embodied in the Shogun and Tokugawa regime - and those who wanted the Shogun made subservient to the Emperor and Imperial Rule. The Assassination of Major Baldwin and Lieutenant Bird Wirgman describes how the notorious murder took place in 1864: "Last Friday week a party of six of us went out for a trip of five days for the purpose of sketching and photographing. On the Monday we met Major Baldwin and Lieutenant Bird on the island of Enoshima. They were admiring the view of Fusiyama; and we asked them to join our party, as we were going to sleep at Fujisawa, on the Tokaido; but they, unfortunately, declined, as they had not seen the Daiboots, a large bronze idol, near Kamakura…………….We continued our way, and arrived safely at Fujisawa, where, shortly after our arrival, Mr. Beato's servant told him that the two officers we had seen at Enoshima had been assassinated……….We returned to Yokohama…where we were informed that the unfortunate Lieutenant Bird had been killed many hours after he was wounded. By whom he was killed, we do not know……I may observe that I myself had been sketching there (at Kamakura) the evening before with only one companion; so safe did we think it that we left our revolvers at the inn …………….It appears from the coroner's inquest that, on the morning of Nov. 21, these unfortunate gentlemen…both of her Britannic Majesty's 20th Regiment left Yokohama, on horseback, for an excursion to Kamakura and Daiboots……….Near this spot and between a miserable tea-house and a hut for horses, in two small sheds of mats propped up by bamboo, and disposed on mats laid on the ground, were found, most horribly mutilated, the bodies of the two unfortunate gentlemen, the pistol of one of them - one barrel of which appeared to have been recently discharged - by his side, that of the other yet undrawn from his belt……It is needless to dwell on the indignation which this cruel murder has excited. Sir Rutherford Alcock, the British Minister, has expressed his determination to leave no means untried to secure the punishment of the murderers." In fact the ringleader, Shimazu Seiji, was finally apprehended and beheaded in public; the watching crowd included the officers and men of the 20th Regiment. Engravings of the murder scene and the execution, drawn by Wirgman, appeared in subsequent issues. He described the execution as follows: "The criminal was mounted on a pack-horse and promenaded through the town. His sentence was written on a large flag carried before him, and also on a board. A guard of twelve Japanese soldiers, with fixed bayonets, marched in front; and the rear was brought up by two mounted officers and a crowd of Europeans on horseback. The streets were crowded with Japanese and Europeans. The murderer, who was an athletic man, with a fine head and a determined expression, sang all the time and looked about him with an air of indifference. At the end of the street he smoked a pipe and had something to eat; then he was taken to the execution-ground, where bonfires and torches lighted up the scene; but the execution was put off till next day, because it was too late for the garrison to attend. The man was then conducted back to prison; and next morning, at nine o'clock, the whole garrison - Royal marines and light infantry of the 20th Regiment, under the command of Colonel Penrose; and half a battery of artillery, under the command of Lieutenant Wood - marched out to the execution-ground, where they formed a square. The Japanese troops were drawn up on the road. After waiting some time, the prisoner, escorted as before, but carried in a norimon or litter, made his appearance. He had some wine and food and then walked to the straw, on which he knelt, with the hole for his head to fall into in front of him. He had made a request that he should not be blindfolded, which was granted, and also that his body might be buried and sent to the place he named, and that a tablet should be placed over his tomb. After speaking to the executioner, he sang or yelled out a long recitation, which no one seems to have understood, and turned to the executioner, who had his sword ready to strike. Saying 'Wait a little', he settled himself with his head over the hole, and said, 'Now'. The sword came down, but only severed a part of his neck; so that the executioner had tom make three cuts before the head was off. A gun was then fired, and the head was taken, in a mat bag, to be exposed at the entrance of the town." Although I have dealt with the more dramatic events surrounding the West's forced penetration of Japan, it is quite noticeable that from 1868 onwards, and the Meiji Restoration, the environment for Western residents became far more relaxed and the articles sent to the ILN (many by Wirgman) reflect this. Space and time, however, will only permit me to mention a few of those that appeared up to, and just beyond the end of the nineteenth century. Miscellaneous Articles The issue for March 28th 1868 gives a full-page engraving and summary of the opening of Kobe, whilst the October 12th 1872 illustrates Ambassador Iwakura's visit to the United States. Extensive coverage of the opening of Japan's first railway is given across several December 1872 issues. We have the Japanese exhibits at the Vienna Exhibition mentioned in November 1873, and the discovery of William Adams' grave is mentioned the same month. Jumping to 1876, we have an engraving of the rather incongruous-looking Korean ambassadors at Yokohama. A year later and the Satsuma rebellion takes centre stage. In November 1878, there is a wonderful double-page engraving of a fire in Japan. Whilst moving forward to the February 21st 1885 issue, we have coverage of the short-lived Japanese Village at Kensington. This commercial attempt to replicate village life in Japan, in the centre of London, was a very popular attraction. Unfortunately, it was mysteriously burnt down a few weeks after its opening. The front cover of the January 1st 1887 issue shows an engraving of a Ball given at Yokohama to the officers of the British Naval Squadron. Charles Wirgman's obituary is contained in the March 28th 1891 issue, and later that year the Gifu earthquake receives coverage. The 1894/5 Sino-Japanese War attracts extensive coverage over numerous issues, but from the end of 1895 to the close of the century, very little information on Japan appears. Summary In the eyes of the ILN reader, Japan had ceased to become the exotic and unknown location it once was. It was now seen as a rapidly modernising nation which had also shown itself as the major military power in Asia; one which was capable of taking on, and defeating China in the 94/95 war. Japan would be all but forgotten for the next 10 years. Nevertheless, there were no doubt some readers for whom Japan was still a fairy-tale land of cherry-blossoms and Geisha's, where everyone lived peaceful and contented lives. Any such wistful notions would have been shattered just a few years later when Japan astounded the world by comprehensively, and aggressively beating a major European power in the 1904/05 Russo-Japanese War. Coverage of that event was so extensive, that it seemed to take over the whole periodical. There are more Japan-related illustrations in just those two years of conflict, than in the whole of the previous fifty. All in all, for the period from 1851 to the death of the Meiji Emperor in 1912, there are more than 1,200 separate pages concerning Japan. Sometimes a page may contain just a couple of short paragraphs of text; others might well have engravings, with or without text, which can take up a whole page, double page or a whole supplement. There is no comprehensive index, unfortunately, and one has to rely on the far from reliable indices at the front of each half-year's volumes. The coverage of Japan in the ILN is all-encompassing; whatever your interest in Japan, it is very likely you will find, in its pages, information in your chosen field. The sheer volume and wealth of information available makes it, to my mind, a truly priceless resource. And whether your purpose is relaxation or study, I don't think the Illustrated London News will disappoint you. Terry Bennett London, September 2003 References: (i) author's ILN collection (ii) Dictionary of National Biography (iii) The Illustrated London News, Edward Orme, article from 'Book and Magazine Collector', September 1984, pp 25 - 35. |